Author: Vadim Rozin
ABSTRACT: This article analyzes China’s historical development through the lens of its shifting social forms: dynasty, empire, and state. Drawing on the seminal work *China: A Short Cultural History* by Charles Patrick Fitzgerald, the author questions the universal applicability of the Western concepts of “empire” and “emperor” to Chinese civilization. In the Chinese tradition, the empire—or “All-under-Heaven” (*Tianxia*)—is conceptualized not merely as a military-administrative structure, but as an expanded global family headed by an “August Ruler” (*huangdi*) who holds the Mandate of Heaven. This fundamental distinction offers a fresh perspective on the relationship between empire, state, and nation: while these concepts historically diverged in the European tradition, in China—owing to a social model rooted in the family—they converge through shared characteristics of agency, purpose, and integrity. The article pays particular attention to the nature of China’s development. Unlike the Western periodization model (archaic era, ancient kingdoms, classical antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the modern era), the primary unit of development in China was the dynasty, with a cycle comprising rise, flourishing, decline, and collapse. Crucially, dynastic transitions—despite accompanying political upheavals—did not alter the deep-seated foundations of the social order, such as the family model, imperial organization, and prevailing worldviews (Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism). The author highlights a paradox: development, understood as the succession of ruling elites and institutions, coexists with the persistence of fundamental cultural codes, lending Chinese history an oscillatory, pendulum-like character. Key factors of development are identified: power struggles, external threats (nomads, Mongols, Manchus, European powers), natural disasters, corruption and the degeneration of elites, as well as the normative influence of the educated stratum of mandarin officials who secured their positions through Confucian examinations. Particular attention is paid to the role of the Legalist school, which laid the legal foundations of the empire, and to Confucianism as the ethical basis for the training of officials. The author also addresses the phenomenon of eunuchs as a social “pole of evil” that accelerated the degradation of dynasties. Methodologically, the article offers a comparative analysis of Chinese and Western conceptualizations and employs problem-setting as the initial step of the inquiry. A periodization of Chinese culture is constructed: the archaic period, the culture of the ancient kingdoms, imperial culture, and Chinese modernity (from Mao Zedong to Xi Jinping). In the author’s view, contemporary China retains the imperial logic of centralized governance while adapting to global technological and economic challenges. The article concludes by raising the ethical question of human nature—is man inherently good or evil?—a topic debated by Chinese philosophers that has regained relevance in an era of global risks. The author suggests that China’s experience may prove significant for the emergence of a new Aeon characterized by a more responsible ethical climate that fosters the preservation of life on Earth.
Keywords: empire, state, culture, dynasty, emperor, elite, nation, governance, history, life